Sexism: Types, Causes, Impacts, & Tips for Coping

What Is Sexism?

Sexism is one of the many “isms” that refer to the unfair treatment of a group of people based on specific identifying characteristics, such as race, religion, or sexual orientation. Sexism is based on the belief that there are inherent differences between women and men, or girls and boys, that warrant differential treatment, opportunities, privileges for each group.³ Individuals who treat women and girls in these limiting ways are considered to be sexists.

Ssexism typically privileges those whose sex and gender identity embody the stereotypical cisgender male. This results in the oppression of those who do not identify in this way and this oppression can be experienced in all domains, including home, community, and employment settings. The expression of sexist attitudes can be covert and overt, and those who are targets of sexism may experience a sense of minority stress, which describes the stress often felt by stigmatized groups.

6 Types of Sexism

While the driving force behind sexism is the belief that women are not just different from men, but also that they are inferior to men. Not only do men hold sexist views, but women may also hold sexist beliefs or make choices that are congruent with a sexist perspective. There are many ways in which sexism is enacted.

The 6 main types of sexism include:

1. Hostile Sexism

Hostile sexism reflects the strong belief that men are superior to women and this belief is expressed in ways that openly denigrate women; this denigration can take on physical form. Hostile sexism has been found to increase the likelihood of domestic abuse and sexual harassment of women.⁴ Hostile sexism may reflect insecurity on the part of sexists in that they view the other gender as a threat in some way to their own success. The goal of hostile sexism is oppression and containment of others.

Examples of hostile sexism may include:

• Believing that men are superior to women
• Believing that women try to control men through manipulation or seduction
• Blaming the victim of sexual assault due to how they dressed or acted
• Using sex or gender-based denigrating or insulting language

2. Benevolent Sexism

Benevolent sexism may sound like a paradox, but it reflects the belief that women are weaker than men and, thus, need protection. This form of sexism is designed to place men in the role of “protector” which positions women to be seen as vulnerable and unable to take care of themselves. It is expressed by both men and women as some women enjoy being cared for and seen as helpless. Some women have been found to prefer having partners who practice benevolent sexism.⁵

People who exercise benevolent sexism may:

• Insist on chivalrous behavior, like opening the door for a woman or walking her home at night
• Encourage women to prioritize relationships and children over educational or professional goals
• Compliment young girls for their beauty or their good behavior while complimenting young boys on their strength or their rambunctious behavior
• Assume that men are more capable of taking on challenging jobs or complex roles than women in the workplace

3. Ambivalent Sexism

This form of sexism is something of an amalgamation of hostile and benevolent sexism in that it describes the presence of both types and that individuals may hold beliefs from each type.¹ Whereas other forms of prejudice are more straightforward, ambivalent sexism acknowledges that there are more complexities to sexism. Whereas men may fully believe that they represent the more dominant and valuable sex, they also must make sense of their need for women and their interdependence on women in intimate relationships.

Examples of ambivalent sexism may include::

• Judging a woman’s character based on her appearance and clothing choices
• Calling behavior that is not traditional feminine “unladylike”
• The belief that a man is not complete without a woman and that men deserve obedient wives
• Believing that women are the weaker sex, so men should take care to protect them

4. Interpersonal Sexism

Interpersonal sexism occurs when a person shares their sexist beliefs and biases with a woman. This can include verbal statements directed at a woman or derogatory comments made in the presence of a woman. It may also be nonverbally practiced such as stepping in front of a woman or pushing a woman out of the way. It includes both gender microaggressions, which are often unintentional slights that target women, and the common gender discrimination that occur in life.⁶

Examples of interpersonal sexism may include:

• Verbal statements such as, “A woman’s place is in the home”
• A man taking up two seats on a crowded bus or taking over both armrests on a flight if women are beside him
• Talking over a woman in a class or workplace meeting
• Making assumptions about what a woman can or cannot do

5. Institutional Sexism

Institutional sexism reflects historical beliefs about the role of women and their ability to function as effectively as men in business, school, or other institutional settings. It is often entrenched in an institution’s policies and procedures and is enacted both through these means and attitudinally by members of the institution. Legal judgements and legislative acts also represent institutional sexism. Due to its institutionalization, it can be difficult to eradicate.

Examples of institutional sexism may include::

• Organizations that allow only men to be members
• Laws regarding women’s reproductive health being made by predominantly male groups
• Leniency in sentencing of perpetrators of sexual assault and rape
• “Ladies Night” at establishments where women are encouraged to consume more alcohol at reduced prices which puts women at greater risk of being victims

6. Internalized Sexism

This form of sexism refers to the inculcation of sexist beliefs in women so that they begin to believe that they are inferior to men in some way. When women grow up in a culture steeped in sexism, whether from their families or the media or their social circle, they may accept the sexist beliefs about what their roles should be as normal and deserved.

Examples of internalized sexism may include:

• A woman might tell herself that she shouldn’t “win” when playing a game with men
• A woman might say to a man, “Oh, you’re right, women have no sense of direction”
• A woman might change her major from pre-med to sociology because men are better at science
• A woman may believe that if a man abuses her that she “deserves it”
• A woman might be afraid to negotiate for a better salary, even if she objectively deserves it

Causes of Sexism

There is no single cause of sexist behavior or sexist beliefs. Some people believe in gender determinism which is the belief that gender determines not just physical traits, but attitudes, values, personality and ability. Sexism can also be passed down through families over the generations and it can be supported by institutions, including religious institutions or in workplaces. Myths, generalizations, stereotypes, and prejudices all contribute to its perpetuation and its infiltration of the culture.

A few common issues underlying sexism include:

• Beliefs about traditional gender roles
• Proliferation of sexist imagery or beliefs online
• Sexist lyrics and attitudes portrayed in entertainment mediums such as music videos
• Family expectations about men’s and women’s roles
• Beliefs about cognitive abilities and skills that favor men over women
• Religious institutions that support subjugation of women to men
• Desensitization to sexist behavior due to its prevalence in society
• Acceptance and normalization of “boys being boys”

Impacts of Sexism

Sexism, like all “isms,” takes a significant toll on its victims. Because sexism is present across the domains of a woman’s life, and across the lifespan, it is highly unlikely that a woman won’t be a victim of it at multiple points in her life. Sexist beliefs within a family may keep a girl from pursuing sports that interest her, studying subjects that she excels at, or pursuing a career that might delay her interest in finding a partner or starting a family. Gender discrimination can be subtle or overt, but the effects it has on a person can be complex.

Sexism can affect all aspects of your life, including:

• Mental Health: Self-esteem can suffer due to being treated as less valuable or capable as others and shame can result for the victim of sexist slurs. Victims may also experience anxiety or depression if they are exposed to constant sexist comments in school or the workplace.
• Physical Health: Women may feel driven to meet unrealistic expectations regarding weight which can lead to eating disorders. They may also obsess about body shape and appearance which may lead to obsessive exercise or surgical cosmetic procedures to enhance their appearance.
• Career: Working as a woman in a male-dominated field can lead to increased victimization by sexist men in the workplace. If sexism is severe, women may choose careers that would protect them from sexist environments and settle for less fulfilling or meaningful careers.
• Relationships: If women engage in romantic relationships with men who hold strongly sexist beliefs, they may allow themselves to be dominated by their partners. Women may also allow themselves to be abused by their partners if they are conditioned to believe that they must always obey their husbands.

Sexism & Gender Discrimination

Gender discrimination is the practice of treating people unequally based on their gender. It includes giving advantages to individuals who identify as men over other genders. It can create deep divides that cause resentment between individuals who are members of the different groups. Sexism supports gender discrimination which can lead to unfair conditions and loss of opportunities.

Sexism & Gender Inequality

Gender inequality is a form of sexism that is marked by the unfair treatment that privileges one gender over another. In cases where women are seen as less deserving as men, women may suffer significant consequences that permeate multiple aspects of their lives. Some of the most significant instances include the gender gap in earnings, where women earn less than men for the same job. Other examples include the lack of representation women have in key decision-making roles in businesses and in the government. Gender inequality continues to compromise women’s welfare.

How to Cope With Sexism

It’s important that people speak up when they see instances of sexism in order to help others recognize the harm they are doing. It can be especially impactful when a man speaks up against sexist behavior towards women just as it is impactful if a woman speaks out against sexist behavior aimed at men. Allowing sexist comments, sexist jokes, or sexist actions to go unchallenged contributes to their perpetuation. At work, if you feel you’re being treated differently due to your gender, speak to a supervisor or to your Human Resources officer.

It can be difficult to speak up at the moment if you fear that you will only incite additional sexist remarks, so you may want to plan ahead if you’ll be in the company of someone who often makes these comments. Rehearse what you want to say so that you’ll be ready to speak up. Remind yourself that you are likely speaking for more than just yourself – others may be too hesitant to speak up themselves.

Things you can say to address sexism might include::

• “I feel when I hear sexist remarks like that. Please avoid saying .”
• “That kind of language isn’t ok with me.”
• “I’m sorry, but did I hear you right?” By asking a question about what the person meant, they may realize the hurtful nature of their words.
• “Did you just imply that women aren’t as effective/successful/prepared as men?”
• “It’s not funny when you make jokes at the expense of others.”
• If someone calls you “baby” or “sweetie,” respond, “My name isn’t Baby, it’s .
• If someone asks you about being a wife or a parent, respond, “My personal life is personal and it’s not okay to ask about it.”

Where to Find Professional Help for Sexism

Because sexism can take so many shapes and show up in so many places, there is not always one way to address it. If it’s happening on the job, there are legal remedies that might be sought; begin by reaching out to your Human Resources department. If it’s happening in your home, open up communication with your partner and/or extended family or children.

If you feel that you need support or professional help addressing or dealing with others’ sexist behaviors, you may want to consider therapy. It can help provide helpful coping strategies and productive ways to respond to sexism. You might consider working with a feminist therapist who could help work through internalized sexism or build your self-esteem. If making time for face-to-face therapy is difficult, you might try online therapy and you can use an online therapist directory to find a therapist.

In My Experience

In my experience, sexism has deep roots that have been supported throughout history through cultural norms. Family and religious background often support sexist beliefs and women who grow up in homes where sexist practices are present may not recognize the ways in which their own lives are being constrained or determined by others. I’ve worked with many clients who may be in early or mid-adulthood who are just beginning to recognize the ways in which their docile natures were reinforced by others and used as means for controlling their choices. Helping them to take ownership of their own direction and to develop their own goals are key to helping them reject the sexist expectations of others. As with many situations, until a person is able to take an objective look at her own life, she may be unaware of her circumstances. And until she recognizes that the circumstances are a problem, she can’t begin to change them. However, once the seed of change takes root, people are able to let go of rules or beliefs that no longer work for them and move towards their newly determined goals.