Defense Mechanisms: Definition, Types, & Examples

What Are Defense Mechanisms?

Defense mechanisms, sometimes called ego defense mechanisms, are conscious or unconscious mental processes that help ease or avoid anxiety. Individuals may or may not realize they utilize these methods, many of which occur as responses to trauma, stress, or anger.

Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, first introduced the idea of emotional defense mechanisms as they pertain to the id, ego, and superego. His daughter, Anna Freud, expanded his ideas in her 1936 book The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence, which described ten defense mechanisms. Experts have since introduced additional examples.¹

How Do Defense Mechanisms Work?

According to Freudian theory, personality consists of three aspects of mental functioning– the id, ego, and superego. The id is the most primitive part of our personality and drives us to meet our needs or wants regardless of morality or consequences. The superego guides us to act in morally or socially acceptable ways. The ego deals with reality, such as making decisions or choices about behavior.

Conflict often develops between the id and superego that the ego tries mediating. When the ego cannot realistically resolve the differences, heightened anxiety results. The ego then uses one or another defense mechanism to reduce the anxiety to a more tolerable level.

What Are the 21 Most Common Defense Mechanisms?

The original description of defense mechanisms included the ten most frequently used types. However, mental health professionals later identified additional forms commonly used in distressing situations.

Here is a list of 21 common defense mechanisms:

1. Denial

Denial is the refusal to accept reality. A person in denial acts as if a distressing event or thought does not exist. They refuse to talk about the problem or acknowledge any related feelings. Denial may prevent anxiety in the short term but only prolongs stress.

For example, someone with a substance misuse problem may deny that their behavior causes serious issues. They may talk about how well they function at work or home while ignoring the consequences of substance use. Denial sits alongside 20 other common defense mechanisms, and recognizing which ones you use is the first step toward loosening their grip.

2. Projection

Projection is placing your own unacceptable emotions, feelings, characteristics, or thoughts on another person to relieve you of anxiety. Doing so allows you to express unwanted feelings without responsibility. People lacking self-awareness of feelings or motivations more commonly use this mechanism.

For example, someone in a committed relationship may accuse the other of cheating without evidence. The person making the accusation may project their desire to become involved in other relationships because they consider their wants unacceptable. By accusing the partner, the person expresses the possibility of a different type of relationship without taking ownership of the thought.

3. Regression

Regression is reverting back to an earlier phase of psychological development. People can become fixated when they have not resolved the challenges in one stage. Regression takes them back to the stage and behaviors of that fixation.

For example, an adult may refuse to leave bed and start their day. Instead, they might stay at home where they feel safe and secure. In childhood, these behaviors may have brought attention and comfort from a parent. The overwhelmed adult ego views being at home and ill as more acceptable than facing anxiety.

4. Acting Out

Acting out is doing something extreme to express a feeling or thought that fuels intense anxiety. People might act out if they cannot express their feelings, and unhealthy behavior temporarily relieves the intensity of emotions.

For example, a person who is angry and frustrated with their circumstances at home might act out by punching a hole in a wall. The person might be unable to identify feelings or put them into words. Hitting something provides quick, temporary relief of anxiety in spite of the bruised fist.

5. Dissociation

Dissociation is unconsciously removing oneself from a present experience, briefly disconnecting one from reality. This dissociation allows the ego to ignore anxiety triggered by that reality. Dissociation often affects people who have experienced trauma, such as violence or childhood abuse. Dissociation can also include mild experiences, such as daydreaming or “highway hypnosis.”²

An example of extreme dissociation is a person detaching from the present when riding as a passenger after a tragic accident. They appear distant as they mentally avoid the fear and terror of their trauma. The detachment can last for minutes, hours, days, or longer.

6. Reaction Formation

Reaction formation is acting opposite to what one feels or thinks, allowing individuals to hide their true feelings. Those out of touch with their own feelings or impulses frequently use this method.

For example, a person applauding when their competitor wins an award may be experiencing a reaction formation. They might be unable to acknowledge their own disappointment in the moment. By acting enthused for the winner, they avoid the anxiety associated with the threat to their self-esteem.

7. Avoidance

Avoidance is the refusal to think about or deal with people, places, or situations that cause anxiety or guilt. Those with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may use this defense mechanism to reduce symptoms associated with their trauma.³

For example, a teenager gets stuck in an elevator. They may later avoid elevators to reduce anxiety associated with the experience. The defense can be temporarily helpful but ignores the problem. In this case, avoidance coping could lead to new issues, such as inefficiency.

8. Compartmentalization

Compartmentalization is similar to dissociation but less extreme. This defense mechanism involves blocking awareness of certain parts of your personality, such as behaving in ways inconsistent with your values. Essentially, you separate aspects of your life into different categories to avoid anxiety.

For example, someone might be honest in managing their money but cheat on their income tax return. They cannot see the discrepancy between valuing honesty with finances and being dishonest with tax filing.

9. Repression

Repression involves unconsciously keeping feelings, thoughts, or memories out of awareness to protect oneself from related anxiety and fears. This defense mechanism is unintentional, meaning the person has little control over the process. The blocked memories remain in their subconscious minds and influence feelings and behavior.

For example, an adult might struggle to trust others due to repressed childhood trauma. Their brain continues associating the repressed memories with the fear of being emotionally or physically unsafe in relationships despite the lack of present threats. Repression is considered one of the foundational defense mechanisms in psychology, first mapped by Sigmund and Anna Freud.

10. Displacement

Displacement means redirecting feelings or impulses about one person toward another less-threatening person when one feels unsafe expressing these thoughts. Displacement is an ineffective defense mechanism because it tends to cause new problems by involving other people.

For example, a person gets angry at their boss but displaces that anger on their spouse. Expressing anger toward their boss is considered unacceptable, maybe due to the threat of losing the job. Becoming irritable toward their spouse seems relatively safer due to a lower risk of consequences.

11. Intellectualization

Intellectualization is avoiding feelings in an emotional situation, instead focusing on thoughts and using logic. The person reacts to the facts and acts on them by doing what is rational or necessary.

For example, a person learns a loved one has passed away and quickly begins making arrangements for a burial or memorial service. They block the intense feelings of grief by focusing on necessary tasks. This defense mechanism becomes more problematic when the person does not acknowledge and work through their grief.

12. Rationalization

Rationalization is using logic or reasoning to justify something upsetting. The person can avoid the actual reasons for an event by replacing them with other seemingly reasonable explanations. By rationalizing, they might change something from being difficult to accept to something that “isn’t so bad.”

For example, someone rejected for a date might rationalize by telling themself the other person was not attractive. Accepting the lack of mutual attraction may be too painful, so they rationalize to avoid feelings of rejection and the threat to their self-image.

13. Undoing

Undoing is trying to take back or make up for hurtful behavior, thought, or impulse. These may be thoughts you feel bad about, so you lessen the guilt by being unusually kind, helpful, or complimentary.

For example, someone who unintentionally insults a friend might feel guilty. Rather than apologize for the comment, they offer compliments to undo the effects of the insult and relieve their own feelings of guilt.

14. Passive-Aggression

Passive-aggressive behavior is the indirect expression of anger to avoid directly dealing with emotions. Passive-aggression is classified as a less mature defense, and a 2024 meta-analysis of 18 studies found that people with depression rely significantly more on these non-mature defenses than people without depression. Passive-aggressive patterns are also common in people with personality disorders.⁴

For example, someone agrees to pick up a friend from the airport at a particular time and then decides to bail. They might later claim they forgot when, in fact, they chose not to follow through.

15. Fantasy

Fantasy is retreating into your imagination to avoid stressful situations or unattainable goals. Children commonly use this defense mechanism, but adults struggling with stressful circumstances may also use this method.⁵

For example, someone working long hours month after month feels burnt out. They might use fantasy to think about the vacation they will take when they have the opportunity. They might imagine what they do on that vacation and how they will feel.

16. Suppression

Suppression is the conscious blocking of unpleasant thoughts, impulses, or memories. A person suppressing decides not to think about disturbing concepts to avoid feelings of anxiety or guilt. Unlike repression, suppression does not block the thoughts indefinitely.

For example, someone who has lied to a friend might feel guilty. They suppress these feelings to get through their work day but decide to talk with that friend as soon as possible. Suppression allows them to function at work while planning to address the problem.

17. Sublimation

Sublimation is channeling unacceptable thoughts or impulses into more socially acceptable behaviors to avoid causing more problems. Sublimation can be an effective way to manage aggressive or sexual impulses.

For example, someone feeling angry might vent through vigorous exercise or using a punching bag. This defense mechanism allows for a healthy release of energy while building strength and avoiding other problems.

18. Compensation

Compensation involves putting more effort and focus into other aspects to outweigh perceived weaknesses. Acknowledging you cannot excel at everything and shifting attention to where you excel is realistic. This defense mechanism can help maintain self-confidence when faced with shortcomings.

For example, a person with more talent at golf than tennis might pursue golf. They can remind themselves of these skills when they lose a game of tennis. They accept they do not excel at both sports but are competent in at least one. Focusing on their relative strengths maintains a healthy sense of confidence in their overall athletic ability.

19. Humor

As a defense mechanism, humor decreases the anxiety associated with a situation by pointing out something funny or ironic. Humor can be effective in some circumstances because it eases tension.

For example, telling a story about a funny incident during a memorial service is an example of using humor as a defense mechanism. The laughter helps relieve the intensity of grief without avoiding or suppressing emotions.

20. Altruism

Altruism as a defense mechanism often takes the form of generosity. Giving back can shift the internal focus onto the well-being of others, helping to alleviate internal stress or managing insecurity.

Someone with this defense mechanism may be highly charitable, even if they have their own financial problems. They may conceal their money stress because they enjoy others perceiving them as kind and compassionate, even at the expense of their own financial security.

21. Aim Inhibition

The aim inhibition defense mechanism refers to accepting a revised specific goal. Instead of clinging to an original aspiration, the person adapts a more realistic worldview that still feels meaningful or fulfilling.

For example, someone may aspire to be a famous singer but work a traditional desk job. To mitigate anxiety-related feelings about not achieving this goal, the person performs gigs on the weekend.

Can Defense Mechanisms Be Healthy?

Defense mechanisms can be healthy when used in moderation, helping people manage difficult emotions and keep functioning through stress. In moderation, they serve an adaptive purpose and may be essential for survival, social belongingness, and fostering emotional well-being. That said, overreliance on defense mechanisms or rigidity may cause problems.

What Does Modern Research Say About Defense Mechanisms?

Modern research treats defense mechanisms as measurable and organized in a hierarchy from least to most adaptive, not as a flat list. Psychiatrist George Vaillant of Harvard Medical School grouped defenses into four levels: psychotic, immature, neurotic, and mature. His decades-long Harvard Study of Adult Development found that people who rely on mature defenses such as humor, sublimation, and altruism tend to have better relationships, careers, and health over their lifetimes than those who lean on immature defenses like denial and projection.

Researchers now assess defenses systematically. The Defense Mechanisms Rating Scales, developed by J. Christopher Perry of McGill University, score roughly 30 individual defenses across seven levels of maturity from recorded therapy sessions, and a validated self-report version, the DMRS-SR-30, lets clinicians track a client’s defensive functioning over time (Journal of Personality Assessment, 2022).

This measurement work matters clinically. A 2024 systematic review and meta-analysis of 18 studies, led by Flavia Fiorentino and colleagues at Sapienza University of Rome and published in the Journal of Affective Disorders, found that people with depressive disorders use significantly more non-mature defenses than people without depression. Defensive functioning also improved moderately across psychological treatment in the small number of longitudinal studies available. The authors concluded that defenses are a modifiable treatment target, especially in younger patients. In practice, that means therapy does not aim to strip your defenses away. It helps you trade less adaptive ones for more mature ones.

What Are the Signs of Unhealthy Defense Mechanisms?

Unhealthy defense mechanisms are defenses used so often, or so rigidly, that they stop a person from facing reality and allow stress to build over time. Using defense mechanisms too often or too long can create more problems than solutions. You may struggle with unhealthy defensive behavior if you have difficulties maintaining routines, staying focused, or regulating your mood.

Signs of unhealthy defense mechanisms may include:

• Accusing others of doing things you want to do but cannot (projection)
• Difficulties paying attention in stressful situations due to maladaptive daydreaming (dissociation)
• Avoiding people, places, or things that upset you (avoidance)
• Feeling distrustful in relationships with no basis to be concerned (repression)
• Acting childishly at inappropriate times (regression)
• Becoming angry or irritable with family after a difficult work day (displacement)
• Arriving late to work due to substance use but telling yourself you do not have a problem (denial)

How Do You Cope With Unhealthy Defense Mechanisms?

Coping with unhealthy defense mechanisms starts with noticing when you use them and understanding what they protect you from. Lifestyle changes, like regular exercise and consistent sleep, can help. Mindfulness, social support, and self-compassion can also promote positive reactions to stressful situations that trigger anxiety.

Below are ways to cope with unhealthy defense mechanisms:

• Identify when you use defense mechanisms: Notice when you are most likely to use specific defense mechanisms. Doing so can help you recognize patterns and ultimately change certain behaviors.
• Understand the need to use defense mechanisms: Why do you use certain defense mechanisms? This insight can shed important insight on what you might be trying to avoid or deal with.
• Practice making small changes: Even small behavioral shifts can significantly improve how you manage unhealthy defense mechanisms.
• Work on strengthening your self-esteem: The more confident you feel about yourself, the more authentic you will feel moving through daily life, which may lessen your need for defense mechanisms.
• Try to eliminate problematic habits: Consider reducing or eliminating compulsive behaviors to slowly wean yourself from them.

When Should You Seek Help for Defense Mechanisms?

Problematic defense mechanisms can adversely affect your relationships, self-esteem, and overall mental health. However, changing or eliminating them can be hard on your own. A therapist can compassionately support you in recognizing your defense mechanisms and creating a roadmap for working through them. Consider looking for a psychodynamic therapist using an online therapist directory.

Final Thoughts

Defense mechanisms are not inherently problematic because they can help reduce internal stress. Still, you may benefit from seeking professional support if concerned about how you depend on defense mechanisms. Rigid or problematic defense mechanisms may result from untreated mental health problems, and a therapist can help you cope.