Defense Mechanisms: Definition, Types, & Examples

What Is a Defense Mechanism?

Defense mechanisms are behaviors that people use to separate themselves from unpleasant events, thoughts, or actions. To better understand defense mechanisms, it’s important to look at the work of Sigmund Freud and his daughter Anna Freud.

His model of personality is based on three aspects of our mind’s functioning: id, ego, and superego. The id is the most primitive part of personality and drives us to meet our needs or wants regardless of morality or realistic consequences. The superego guides us to act in ways that are morally or socially acceptable. The ego is the part that deals with reality, such as making decisions or choices about how to act.

It is common for a conflict to develop between the desires of the id and the restrictions of the superego. The ego tries to mediate between the conflicting forces of the id and superego. When the ego cannot resolve the differences in a realistic way, a state of heightened anxiety results. The ego then uses one or another defense mechanism to reduce the anxiety to a more tolerable level.

Primitive vs. Mature Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms have been categorized into subgroups based on how primitive they are.¹ The more primitive defense mechanisms are effective in the short-term but less effective in the long-term. They are favored by children and adults who haven’t yet learned better ways of coping with stress.

Examples of primitive defense mechanisms include:²

• Denial
• Regression
• Acting out

The most advanced defense mechanisms include:

• Suppression
• Sublimation
• Compensation
• Assertiveness
• Humor

20 Common Defense Mechanisms

The original description of defense mechanisms included 10 that are most frequently subconsciously used by the ego. However, mental health professionals later identified additional defense mechanisms and differentiated between the least effective (most primitive) and the most effective (advanced) in terms of being helpful over time.¹

Here is a list of 20 defense mechanisms:

Most Primitive

1. Denial

Denial is the refusal to accept the reality that something painful has happened or is still happening. A person in denial will act as if the distressing event or thought simply doesn’t exist. They refuse to talk about the problem or acknowledge any feelings related to it. It is one of the most primitive defense mechanisms because even young children may use denial to cope with trauma or chronic stress.

For example, someone with a substance misuse problem may remain in denial that their behavior is causing serious problems. They may talk about how well they function at work or at home while ignoring the consequences of the substance use.

It is common for people with substance dependence to remain in denial until they have suffered extreme losses, such as separation from family, loss of a job, or financial devastation. The denial may prevent anxiety in the short-term, but it only prolongs the problem in the long-term.

2. Projection

Projection is taking your own unacceptable feelings or thoughts and putting them on another person as if they belong to them. The goal is to relieve you of anxiety about having that thought, feeling, or characteristic. Projection allows you to express the unwanted feeling without owning it. A lack of awareness of one’s own feelings or motivations makes a person more likely to use this mechanism.

For example, someone in a committed relationship may accuse the other of cheating without any evidence. The person making the accusation may be projecting their own desire to become involved in other relationships. They’re unable to acknowledge that desire because they consider it unacceptable. By accusing the partner, the possibility of a different type of relationship is expressed without taking ownership of the thought.

3. Regression

Regression is reverting back to an earlier stage of psychological development. The concept of regression is related to the Freudian theory that personality develops through a series of stages. When a person hasn’t resolved the challenges of a certain stage, they can become fixated. Regression takes you back to the stage and behaviors of that fixation.

For example, under a high level of stress, an adult might refuse to get out of bed and start their day. Instead, they might stay at home where they feel safe and secure. They might even develop vague physical complaints without any noticeable symptoms.

In childhood, these behaviors may have brought attention and comfort from a parent. To the overwhelmed adult ego, being at home and ill seems more acceptable than facing the anxiety of the day’s problems.

4. Acting Out

Acting out is doing something extreme to express a feeling or thought that is creating intense anxiety. A person might act out if they don’t feel able to express their feelings in a more acceptable way. The extreme behavior relieves the intensity of the bad feeling in the short-term. As with the other primitive defenses, it is an ineffective as a way of managing anxiety in the long term.

For example, a person who is angry and frustrated with their circumstances at home might act out by punching a hole in a wall. They might feel unable to identify their own feelings and to put them into words. Punching the wall provides quick, temporary relief of anxiety in spite of the bruised fist.

5. Dissociation

Dissociation is psychologically removing yourself from your present experience. It isn’t done consciously; therefore, it’s easy to lose track of time and memories from that time. The person who dissociates is briefly disconnecting from reality. This dissociation allows the ego to ignore anxiety triggered by that reality. Dissociation often affects people who have experienced trauma such as violence or childhood abuse.

For example, there is a broad range of behavior that can be described as dissociation. On one end of the spectrum are common and mild dissociations such as daydreaming or “highway hypnosis.”³ At the other end is dissociation in response to a trigger related to a prior trauma.

An example of extreme dissociation is a person who detaches from the present when they ride as a passenger in a car after having been involved in a tragic accident. They appear detached from the present as they are trying to mentally avoid the fear and terror of the past accident. The detachment can last for minutes, hours, days, or longer.

6. Reaction Formation

Reaction formation is acting in a way that is opposite to what you are feeling or thinking. By acting in the opposite way, a person is able to hide their true feelings even from themself. It is more likely to be a defense used by those who are out of touch with their own feelings or impulses.

For example, a person who applauds with enthusiasm when their competitor wins an award can be experiencing a reaction formation. They might be unable to acknowledge their own disappointment or feeling of failure in the moment. By acting enthused for the winner, the anxiety associated with the threat to their self-esteem is avoided.

7. Avoidance

Avoidance is the refusal to think about or deal with people, places, or situations that cause anxiety or guilt. It is often used by those suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) to avoid the place where trauma occurred.⁴

For example, a teenager who has had the experience of being stuck in an elevator might later avoid elevators as a means of avoiding the anxiety associated with that experience. The defense can be helpful for a while, but it sometimes becomes difficult to avoid the situation. In this case, avoidance coping itself could lead to new problems such as inefficiency.

8. Compartmentalization

Compartmentalization is blocking out awareness of certain parts of your personality. It’s similar to dissociation, but less extreme. If you act in a way that is inconsistent with your values, you may compartmentalize that action and block it from your awareness. It can also be understood as separating parts of your life into different categories to avoid anxiety.

For example, a person might be honest in their routine management of money and then cheat on their income tax return. They don’t see the discrepancy between valuing honesty with finances and being dishonest with tax filing. They have compartmentalized the behavior of paying their taxes.

Less Primitive

9. Repression

Repression is unconsciously keeping feelings, thoughts, or memories out of your awareness. It is done to protect ourselves from the anxiety or fear related to those memories. Because it’s done without our intention, the person has little control over the blocking of the memories. The blocked memories remain in our subconscious minds and continue to influence our feelings and behavior.

For example, an adult might struggle to trust others enough to form close relationships if they have repressed memories of being abused as a child. The repressed memories continue to be associated with the fear of being emotionally or physically unsafe in relationships. This childhood vulnerability can remain in the person’s mind in spite of the lack of any real threat in the present. By repressing the memories, the intense subconscious fear of being harmed is blocked out.

10. Displacement

Displacement is the redirecting of feelings or impulses about one person toward another less-threatening person. It’s often used when the person feels that it’s unsafe or unwise to direct the feelings toward the actual person involved in the problem. Most commonly, feelings of aggression are displaced. As a defense mechanism, it isn’t effective because it tends to cause new problems by involving the other people.

For example, think of the person who gets angry at their boss but displaces that anger toward their spouse. The expression of the angry feelings toward their boss is considered unacceptable, maybe due to the threat of losing the job. It feels relatively safer to get angry at their spouse, who is unlikely to set a serious consequence.

11. Intellectualization

Intellectualization is the avoidance of feelings in an emotional situation and, instead, focusing on thoughts and using logic. It is an over emphasis on thoughts to protect ourselves from the anxiety or stress of the moment. Since the feelings are blocked from awareness, they are not managed well. The person reacts to the facts and acts on them by doing what is rational or necessary.

For example, a person might be told that a loved one has passed away and quickly begin to make arrangements for a burial or memorial service. The intense feelings of grief are blocked from awareness and replaced with a focus on what needs to be done. This defense becomes more problematic if it continues over time and prevents the person from acknowledging their loss and working through their grief.

12. Rationalization

Rationalization is the use of logic or reasoning to justify something upsetting that occurred. The actual reasons for the event are avoided and replaced with other seemingly reasonable explanations. By rationalizing, you might change something that is difficult to accept into something that “isn’t so bad.” It’s a form of self-deception that can be effective in the short-term to reduce anxiety and protect self-esteem.

For example, someone who was rejected for a date might rationalize by telling themself they didn’t find the other person attractive. It may be too painful for them to accept the lack of mutual attraction. By rationalizing, they avoid feelings of rejection and the threat to their self-image.

13. Undoing

Undoing is trying to take back or make up for a behavior, thought, or impulse that you see as hurtful to someone else. It may be a thought that the other person is not even aware of, but you feel bad for thinking it. You might try to lessen the guilt by being unusually kind, helpful, or complimentary.

For example, a person who has unintentionally insulted a friend might feel guilty for doing so, but rather than apologize for the comment, they make up for it by giving compliments. They are attempting to undo the effects of the insult and relieve their own feelings of guilt.

14. Passive-Aggression

Passive-aggression is the indirect expression of anger to avoid directly dealing with anger. This defense mechanism is used by many adults, particularly those who are very depressed and those with personality disorders.⁵

For example, someone who agrees to do a favor for a friend in spite of not really wanting to might be passive-aggressive by not following through with the requested favor. As an example, they might agree to pick up the friend from the airport at a particular time and then decide to not show up. They might later make the excuse that they forgot when in fact it was their decision to not be there as promised.

15. Fantasy

When used as a defense mechanism, fantasy refers to retreating into your own imagination to avoid stressful situations or to reach your unattainable goals. It is a defense commonly used by children, but it is also used by adults when they are feeling challenged by their circumstances.⁶

For example, someone who has been working long hours month after month and feeling burned out might use fantasy to think about the vacation they will take when they have the opportunity. They might imagine what they do on that vacation and how they will feel.

Most Advanced

16. Suppression

Suppression is the conscious blocking of unpleasant thoughts, impulses, or memories. A person who is suppressing is deliberately trying not to think about a disturbing thought or impulse. This is usually done to avoid feelings of anxiety or guilt. Unlike repression, suppression does not block the thoughts indefinitely. They are brought back to awareness when there is an opportunity to cope with them more effectively.

For example, someone who has lied to a friend might feel guilt for doing so. They might suppress the feeling of guilt in order to get through their work day but make a decision to talk with that friend as soon as possible. Suppression is effective in letting them function at work, but it does not prevent them from dealing with the consequences of having lied.

17. Sublimation

Sublimation is channeling unacceptable thoughts or impulses into more socially acceptable behaviors. By redirecting the energy away from the unacceptable behavior and toward more healthy behavior, the person avoids causing more problems. Sublimation can be an effective way to manage aggressive or sexual impulses.

For example, someone who is feeling angry might vent their anger by doing vigorous exercise, such as working out with a punching bag. This allows for a healthy release of energy while building strength and avoiding other problems.

18. Compensation

Compensation is making up for perceived weaknesses in one area by putting more effort and focus into other aspects of your life. It is realistic to acknowledge that you cannot excel at everything and to focus on the areas where you might excel. This defense can be helpful in maintaining self-confidence when faced with weaknesses.

For example, a person who shows more talent at golf than tennis might choose to spend much more of their time playing golf. When they lose a game of tennis, they might reassure themself that they’re better at golf. They are accepting that they don’t excel at both sports but that they are competent in at least one. This focus upon their relative strengths maintains a healthy sense of confidence in their overall athletic ability.

19. Assertiveness

Assertiveness is communicating in a direct, clear, respectful way. It is stating thoughts, feelings or needs in a way that is firm but not aggressive. It is more direct than passive communication because opinions or needs are stated clearly. However, the words used are not mean-spirited or intended as hurtful. It’s a highly desirable communication skill.

For example, a person who declines to do a favor for a friend might be assertive by saying that they cannot help with that request although they do value the friendship and would like it to continue. It is not necessary to give any reasons or to make any excuses.

20. Humor

As a defense mechanism, humor is decreasing the anxiety associated with a situation by pointing out something funny or ironic about it. Humor is widely regarded as one of the higher-level defense mechanisms.⁶

For example, telling a story about a funny incident from a person’s life during a memorial service is an example of using humor as a defense mechanism. The laughter helps to relieve the intensity of grief at least for a few moments. It is not an avoidance of the emotion, but simply a brief relief from it.

When Do Defense Mechanisms Become Unhealthy?

Defense mechanisms stop people from facing reality, leaving the original stress to worsen over time. The more primitive defense mechanisms often cause more issues, particularly if they’re used too often or for too long. In contrast, the more advanced defense mechanisms are healthier and less likely to cause problems; however, even they might be overused.

7 Signs of an Unhealthy Use of Defense Mechanisms

Here are seven signs of unhealthy defensiveness:

1. You’re often accusing others of doing things that you’d like to be doing but can’t admit to, leading to relationship conflicts (projection)
2. You have difficulty paying attention in stressful situations due to maladaptive daydreaming (dissociation)
3. You’re avoiding people, places, or things that upset you (avoidance)
4. You tend to feel distrustful in relationships with no basis to be concerned (repression)
5. Your friends point out that you act childishly at inappropriate times (regression)
6. You often get angry or irritable with family after a difficult work day (displacement)
7. You’re arriving late to work routinely after using alcohol or other substances on the prior day, but you’re telling yourself that you still get the work done and do not have a problem (denial)

Treatment for Unhealthy Defense Mechanisms

Treatment for an unhealthy reliance on defense mechanisms is often consistent with treatment for anxiety disorders. It might involve various forms of individual therapy, anger management, grief counseling, medication, or lifestyle changes.

Therapy

There are several forms of therapy that could be helpful in limiting the use of defense mechanisms. Anger management is typically recommended for acting out and displacement. If denial is resulting in persistent abuse of a substance, the person is likely to benefit from information and support from a recovery program. Someone repressing grief may need grief counseling, while a person with severe dissociations may need PTSD treatment.

A licensed mental health provider will be able to assess the underlying problem and make treatment recommendations. Medication could be recommended if the level of anxiety or irritability is extreme. The most common medications for anxiety issues are benzodiazepines, beta blockers, and antidepressants, all of which would be prescribed by a licensed medical professional.

If you don’t know where to start when it comes to finding a therapist, consider starting with an online directory.

Lifestyle Changes

Lifestyle changes that have been demonstrated to help with chronic anxiety include regular exercise (to balance neurochemicals and lower levels of stress hormones), consistent and adequate sleep (to maintain both physical and mental well-being), and limited use of stimulants such as caffeine. Other lifestyle changes include implementing a mindfulness practice, spending time with supportive friends and family, and practicing self-compassion.

Final Thoughts on Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms lessen anxiety in the moment, which is their ultimate purpose. Mature defense mechanisms are often effective in the long term because they don’t cause more issues, but when primitive defense mechanisms become unhealthy, treatment is recommended and available. Reaching out to a therapist or a trusted friend or family member is a great way to start feeling better.