Cognitive Distortions: Types, Examples, & Causes

What Are the Types of Cognitive Distortions?

There are many different types of cognitive distortions, and learning about them is an important first step in challenging and shifting one’s thoughts and emotions. The term “cognitive distortion” was first coined by Aaron Beck–the father of Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT)–and refers to illogical information processing biases. Unfortunately, these biases create negative thought patterns, sometimes contributing to the development of unhealthy and unhelpful beliefs about oneself and the world.¹

Below are some common types of cognitive distortions:

Polarized Thinking

Polarized thinking, also known as “black and white” or “all or nothing” thinking, is the tendency to perceive things in absolutes or extremes. Polarized thinking can affect how you feel about yourself and others, because it makes being flexible and acknowledging complexity in situations difficult.²

Examples of polarized thinking include:

• “This project is too hard. I’ll never be able to do it.”
• “I didn’t get the job. I am a failure.”
• “I can’t believe she forgot my birthday. She is a horrible friend who doesn’t care about me at all.”

CBT encourages reframing these types of extreme thoughts to consider the gray area in between extremes. For instance, a reframe to the first example above might be, “This project is difficult, but I am capable of facing challenges.”

Overgeneralization

Like polarized thinking, overgeneralization relates to perceived extremes when someone makes broad interpretations from a single or few events. Overgeneralization can make it challenging for one to remember that every situation and person is different. A good clue that you might be engaging in this cognitive distortion is if your mental vocabulary frequently includes “always,” “never,” or “every.”

Examples of overgeneralization include:

• “What a horrible date. I’m never going to find someone.”
• “I don’t like any classical music. One time I went to a concert and it was boring.”

CBT encourages individuals to approach every situation as unique in order to continually learn about themselves and the world around them. For instance, a therapist might suggest that a client reassess a dating experience by reminding them that one bad date doesn’t mean that they’ll never have a good one.

Catastrophizing

Catastrophizing occurs when someone sees only the worst possible outcomes of a situation. This mindset can make it difficult for one to stay in the present, because they are so worried about any possible future events. Catastrophizing can also include the belief that what has already happened is irreparable, when in reality it is not. When individuals struggle with catastrophizing, their assumptions are usually based on very limited data or evidence.

Examples of catastrophizing include:

• “I don’t want to go to the party. I know everyone there will think I’m weird.”
• “My throat hurts. I think I might have cancer.”
• “Did you feel the turbulence? The plane is going to crash.”>

In CBT, individuals are encouraged to think about the actual likelihood of a catastrophe, and consider the possibility of a more positive outcome. In the case of a flight, someone may instead think, “Flying is relatively safe, so it’s possible the turbulence was a completely normal occurrence.”

Personalization

Personalization is the belief that you are responsible for events over which you have or had no control. When individuals personalize, they find it tough to decipher when a situation is actually related to them.

Examples of personalization include:

• “My mom is always irritable. She would be happier if I was a better daughter.”
• “Our team lost the soccer game because of me.”

CBT combats this by encouraging individuals to look outside of themselves and consider other factors that have contributed to or provide explanations for a situation. For instance, “Maybe mom had a bad day at work and that is part of why she’s irritable today.”

Mental Filtering

Mental filtering, or having “attentional biases,”  is when one filters information to focus only on the negative aspects of a situation.³ A mental filter creates a “glass half empty” mentality, making it hard for a person to recognize the complexities of a circumstance. Mental filters can also cause individuals to fixate on perceived mistakes or failures.

Examples of mental filtering include:

• “I know that my performance received stellar reviews in the paper, but I heard an audience member saying she didn’t like my role after the show.”
• “I had a great time at the party seeing old friends, but Sally didn’t say hello to me. I should have just stayed home.”

Instead of seeing everything in a negative light, CBT teaches individuals to consider the “glass half full” option first and focus on what went right in a situation. For instance, rather than being upset that Sally didn’t say hello, a person can be happy that they enjoyed their time at the party regardless.

Discounting the Positive

Similarly, discounting the positive is when you ignore positive events or situations that have occurred. Essentially, you decide that the good aspects of a circumstance do not “count” for one reason or another. Discounting the positive can contribute to low self-esteem, because it reinforces the notion that you have agency in creating positive circumstances.

Examples of discounting the positive include:

• “I know I got the right answer, but it was only a lucky guess.”
• “I can’t believe I received the job offer. I must have been the only one who applied.”

A person can reframe these thoughts by examining the actual evidence in order to evaluate a situation, and get a better sense of the whole picture (not just the negative). For example, a person can tell themselves that they most likely received a job offer, because they were qualified for the position.

Jumping to Conclusions

Jumping to conclusions is when one presumes the meaning of something with little or no evidence. This often includes assuming that something will go wrong or turn out badly. One example of jumping to conclusions is “mind reading,” in which one assumes that someone else is having certain thoughts, without adequate evidence. When you struggle with mind reading, you create fantasies about situations that are often disconnected from reality.

Examples of jumping to conclusions include:

• “She didn’t seem excited to see me. She definitely hates me.”
• “The doctor made a funny face when he looked at my chart. He’s going to tell me that I’m dying.”

In therapy, these distortions are reworked by reminding individuals that they cannot know what someone else is thinking, unless they ask them first. Reframing mind reading often includes considering other reasons an individual might be acting or speaking in a certain way. For example, a friend may be having a bad day and not be as enthusiastic as normal.

“Should” Statements

“Should” statements stem from the belief that something ought to be a certain way. When you struggle with this mindset, your ideas are often rigid, leaving little space for a variety of other experiences and perspectives. “Should” statements can create feelings of inadequacy, guilt, and stress.

Examples of “should” statements include:

• “I should have gotten married by now.”
• “I shouldn’t be so upset about this.”

CBT challenges “should” statements by encouraging individuals to explore why they are placing (often arbitrary) demands on themselves. Even if the demand is reasonable, it is important for you to ask – is “shoulding” yourself motivating you to take action? Tell yourself, it’s okay to be upset, even if you’d rather not be.

Emotional Reasoning

Emotional reasoning is the assumption that certain feelings are true, despite evidence that might point to the contrary. Emotional reasoning can lead to an individual being disconnected from reality, as they are so caught up in their own emotional experience.

Examples of emotional reasoning include:

• “I feel like a bad sister, so I am a bad sister.”
• “Mark was supposed to be home ten minutes ago, I’m sure something terrible has happened to him.”

CBT combats emotional reasoning by having clients check the facts of a situation–feelings aren’t facts! For instance, “Mark might be caught in traffic, so my worry is not enough evidence to prove that something terrible has happened.”

Labeling

Labeling is when you take one characteristic and generalize it to a whole person. This relates to the belief that you (or others) are static and incapable of change.

Examples of labeling include:

• “I did poorly on my last math test. I am horrible at math.”
• “She rejected me when I asked her out. I’m a loser.”

Labeling can be damaging, as it creates an inflexible way of approaching yourself and the world around you. Instead of bullying yourself after doing poorly, use any mistakes as motivation to do better next time.

Common Associated Disorders

It’s important to remember that all humans struggle with cognitive distortions to some extent. However, these negative thought patterns can contribute to a variety of mental health issues when they become more persistent and extreme. These related disorders include but are not limited to anxiety, depression, PTSD, various eating disorders, and personality disorders.

Anxiety & Cognitive Distortions

Individuals living with anxiety disorders struggle with more cognitive distortions than those without anxiety.³ Typically, many will experience cognitive distortions related to “threat and danger.”⁵ They tend to engage in mind reading, personalization, overgeneralization, mental filtering, and emotional reasoning.³ For instance, someone with anxiety might fear social situations, because they feel awkward and assume they are disliked (emotional reasoning).

Depression & Cognitive Distortions

Those diagnosed with depression also report experiencing more cognitive distortions than healthy individuals.³ Distortions within depression often relate to failures and/or losses.⁵ Many with depression may predominantly struggle with personalization, mental filtering, and overgeneralizing.³ These can lead to a poor self-image and feelings of incompetence, contributing to an individual’s low mood. For example, a mother might believe she is a “failure,” because her teenager often seems angry (personalization).

PTSD & Cognitive Distortions

Individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) often experience cognitive distortions that have been shaped by the traumatic event they experienced or others’ reactions to their trauma. PTSD can create negative beliefs about one’s self and the world. With PTSD, cognitive distortions are often related to self-blame and excessive guilt.⁶ A war veteran may experience survivor’s guilt and believe that they are “worthless,” because they could not protect their fellow soldier (labeling).

Eating Disorders & Cognitive Distortions

Those who struggle with eating disorders (ED) also experience frequent cognitive distortions related to food, body image, and self-esteem. These include a set of “dysfunctional self-worth beliefs” that impact their ability to care for themselves appropriately.⁷ For those with anorexia nervosa, for example, they might believe that if they gain weight, they will never be happy (catastrophizing). This mindset is generally also prevalent in those living with bulimia, other specified feeding or eating disorders (OSFED), among others.

BPD & Cognitive Distortions

Because individuals diagnosed with borderline personality disorder (BPD) struggle to differentiate between real and perceived abandonment, they will often experience cognitive distortions related to this. Moreover, they may overgeneralize if they have experienced loss in the past.⁷ Someone with BPD might believe others are angry at them for seemingly unrealistic reasons, such as being less talkative than usual (mind reading). Additionally, “black and white” thinking is common as well, also known as BPD “splitting.” This may include seeing people as all good or all bad.⁸

NPD & Cognitive Distortions

Individuals with narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) often rely on cognitive distortions to justify antisocial or aggressive behavior. One may struggle with blaming others, minimizing, and labeling.⁹ A person with NPD might assume that others are “useless,” because they make simple mistakes or errors(labeling).

How Are Cognitive Distortions Treated?

Cognitive distortions may be treated differently, based on how they present and what conditions they accompany (anxiety, depression, etc.). However, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is most often used to target distortions, and can be effective for a number of related disorders. CBT gives individuals the tools to identify their distortions and challenge their rigid ways of thinking. By identifying their automatic negative thoughts, individuals can begin to shift the emotions that are untrue and unhelpful in their lives.

Thought Reframing

One technique that is emphasized in CBT is thought reframing, which focuses on teaching clients to view potentially difficult or challenging situations in a more neutral or positive way. This can include examining evidence and checking your thoughts to evaluate if distortions are occurring. Reframed thoughts may be tough to fully embrace at first, but will prove beneficial in the long run.

How to Cope With Cognitive Distortions

The first step in healing is learning to recognize when you are struggling with distortions, so you can challenge them.

For example, you are struggling to finish a difficult assignment at work and think, “This is horrible work. I’m going to be fired and I’ll never find another job. I’m so incapable.”

Here’s an example of a reframe:

• Step 1: Think – are these thoughts true? Are they encouraging me to accomplish my goals? Even if this is not your best work, focusing on your failures only makes you less likely to try to improve them.
• Step 2: Identify which cognitive distortions are occurring. In this example, catastrophizing, generalizing, and labeling are being used.
• Step 3: Check the facts – are these thoughts rooted in hard evidence? In this case, you could ask yourself– do employees usually get fired because they struggle on one assignment? Is it likely that I will never be able to find another job if I was fired? Is struggling on one assignment proof that I am incapable?
• Step 4: Consider alternatives and reframe your thoughts to be neutral or even positive. Start by telling yourself, “Everyone struggles sometimes. It’s okay that I don’t feel great at this moment. I know there are steps I can take to improve my performance. One challenging assignment does not define my career.”

Other ways to challenge cognitive distortions include increasing awareness of your thoughts and emotions, so that reframing can become more automatic. These methods can include mediation, practicing mindfulness, and journaling, all of which have been shown to help decrease levels of anxiety and negative thoughts.

How to Help Someone Experiencing Cognitive Distortions

Helping someone who is suffering from cognitive distortions can be tough, but there are ways to offer support.

If you notice a friend, family member, or colleague appears to be struggling with distorted thoughts and automatic negative beliefs you can support them by:

• Listening and validating: Sometimes individuals just need to feel heard in order to feel a bit better.
• Being patient: It can be frustrating when someone is thinking in a distorted way and the truth feels obvious to you. Try to be patient and remember we all struggle with cognitive distortions at times.
• Ask them if they would like help reframing: This can be beneficial, but make sure to ask for someone’s permission before reframing for them, as this could be perceived as invalidating.
• Encouraging therapy: If someone you know is feeling overwhelmed by cognitive distortions, it could be helpful to encourage them to seek help from a professional.

Final Thoughts

If you or a loved one are struggling with persistent cognitive distortions that are contributing to a decrease in your overall well-being, therapy can help! Therapists are trained to watch out for cognitive distortions, and can often provide guidance about how to reframe negative thoughts in a way that feels believable. Finding a therapist from an online directory is a good first step towards healing.