Stockholm Syndrome: Definition, Symptoms, & Examples

What Is Stockholm Syndrome?

Stockholm syndrome is an informal term describing the bond between a victim and perpetrator, often in hostage situations.^1,5 Individuals who develop Stockholm syndrome have positive feelings toward the person abusing them or holding them hostage. Some may go to great lengths to protect the abuser or deny the mistreatment.⁶

Why Is It Called Stockholm Syndrome?

The term “Stockholm Syndrome” originated from a 1973 bank robbery in Stockholm, Sweden, in which two criminals held four employees hostage for six days. During this time, the hostages developed sympathy for their captors due to their acts of kindness and compassion. In fact, the victims began to defend the criminals following the event.

Psychologists who later studied the case noticed a pattern of emotional bonding between captors and captives in situations of prolonged imprisonment and abuse, thus leading to the adoption of “Stockholm Syndrome.”

Stockholm Syndrome Vs. Trauma Bonding

Many people may confuse Stockholm syndrome with trauma bonding. However, these two relationship dynamics are different. Trauma bonding refers to an emotional attachment that occurs in abusive relationships, while Stockholm syndrome only happens in situations of captivity or imprisonment.

Signs of Stockholm Syndrome

Several signs may indicate Stockholm syndrome in victims. Typically, individuals show empathy toward the abuser, defending their actions or behavior or blaming

themselves for the abuse. Some may feel grateful to the perpetrator for allowing them to live. When authorities take action against the abuser, victims may refuse to cooperate or actively try to reduce the abuser.

Signs of Stockholm syndrome may include:

• Humanizing and empathizing with their captor, perpetrator, or abuser
• A powerful emotional or psychological bond between a victim and their abuser
• Protecting or defending their captor or abuser from authorities
• Denial or minimization of abuse, torture, or other maltreatment
• Selective memory of times when their abuser was kind or affectionate to them
• A refusal to cooperate with authorities trying to intervene, help, or rescue them
• A belief in the inherent goodness or humanity of the perpetrator
• A desire to please or appease the person abusing, controlling, or mistreating them
• Believing they can prevent abuse through good behavior
• Withdrawing from others to avoid angering their abuser
• Adopting the goals or aligning with the values of their captor or abuse

Symptoms of Stockholm Syndrome

Stockholm syndrome is not a diagnosable mental health condition. However, some research found a common set of ‘symptoms’ associated with Stockholm syndrome. While these can vary slightly from person to person, specific experiences commonly affect those presenting with Stockholm syndrome.^7,8

Symptoms of Stockholm syndrome may include:

• Feeling closely bonded or attached to the captor or abuser
• Regressing to a childlike state of dependence
• Selective memory of positive or kind acts of the captor or abuser
• Denial, minimization, or excuses made for abuse or maltreatment
• Feeling emotionally disconnected, numb, or detached
• Dissociating from one’s body
• Selective amnesia of trauma/abuse
• Self-blame, guilt, or shame for the trauma or abuse
• Wanting to protect the perpetrator or abuser
• Conflicting feelings of fear and affection for the captor/abuser
• Distrust of authorities and refusal to cooperate with them
• Idealization of the perpetrator or abuser
• Delusions or distorted thinking (cognitive distortions)
• Increased anxiety or feeling easily agitated or irritated
• Feelings of depression, hopelessness, or helplessness
• Feeling estranged or detached from other people (besides the abuser)
• Loss of identity or trouble identifying feelings, wants, and needs
• Inability to make decisions or be independent
• Lowered self-esteem or loss of identity
• Defensiveness, distrust, or anger towards others attempting to help them

What Causes Stockholm Syndrome?

Experts have yet to determine why Stockholm syndrome occurs. In some cases, people affected by Stockholm syndrome are unwilling to comply with authorities to avoid incriminating their perpetrators, thus adding another barrier to researching the phenomenon.^1,5 However, specific situations, such as abuse, human trafficking, or abductions, are commonly associated with development.

Trauma & Stockholm Syndrome

Trauma plays a significant role in the development of Stockholm Syndrome. Captors typically control every aspect of life for victims, often leaving them fearful, helpless, and unable to escape. This constant threat to their safety and the uncertainty of their future creates a sense of powerlessness and dependence on the captors for survival.

Traumatic events that may lead to Stockholm syndrome include:

• Human trafficking, sex trafficking, and prostitution
• Abusive relationships (particularly women)
• Childhood trauma (i.e., physical, sexual, or emotional abuse or incest)
• Cults or religious, political, or terrorist extremist group membership
• Political prisoners or prisoners of war
• Slaves or individuals imprisoned, detained, or kept in isolation
• Citizens or groups of oppressive/corrupt regimes, governments, or institutions

Psychological Causes of Stockholm Syndrome

Experts suggest Stockholm syndrome is a last-resort attempt to cope with extremely stressful, dangerous, and inescapable situations.² This defense mechanism is mainly used when someone cannot escape the situation, ask for help, or fight back. Stockholm syndrome may also be an adaptive response to help victims maintain hope and empathy while limiting the negative psychological effects of the trauma.^1,2,3

Situations in which Stockholm syndrome may develop include:

• Isolation from the outside world, often for a long period
• Deprivation of basic needs or poor living conditions
• Complete dependence on the perpetrator for basic needs and survival
• Certain acts of kindness, affection, or ‘humanity’ toward the victim
• A dangerous, distressing, or bad situation that feels inescapable
• Threats made or implied towards the victim’s life but not acted upon
• Frequent interactions or being in a shared space with the perpetrator
• The belief that appeasing their perpetrator ensures safety

Stockholm Syndrome in Relationships

Stockholm syndrome can occur in cases where one person exerts total control over another, leading the victim to become emotionally attached to them. This phenomenon is not conclusive to romantic relationships, meaning nearly any abusive dynamic can contribute to development. Athletes, children, and domestic violence survivors can all fall victim to Stockholm syndrome.

Child Abuse

In cases of child abuse, children may form an emotional attachment to abusers as a survival mechanism. Due to repeated trauma and manipulation, children may learn to believe parental or adult abuse is somehow justified or they deserve mistreatment. They may develop a sense of loyalty or protectiveness toward their abuser, meaning they may never disclose their experiences or seek help. Unfortunately, this dynamic can further complicate the healing process for survivors and may require specialized therapeutic interventions.

Athletics

Stockholm syndrome can also occur when athletes form emotional bonds with abusive coaches who engage in harmful practices. Athletes can become psychologically dependent on their coaches and rationalize or downplay the abusive behaviors they experience. For example, intense training regimes, power dynamics, and pressure to perform can contribute to Stockholm syndrome, as athletes may feel they need approval or validation from their coaches to succeed.

Sex Trafficking

Survivors of sex trafficking can develop Stockholm syndrome because perpetrators often employ tactics to control and manipulate their victims through isolation, threats, and emotional abuse. This behavior can lead to a survival dynamic in which the victim feels a sense of dependency and attachment to their trafficker.

Domestic Violence

Abusive partners may use various tactics, such as gaslighting, manipulation, and threats, to maintain control in domestic violence situations. This power dynamic can lead the victim to feel a misplaced sense of loyalty, affection, or dependency on their abuser. They may internalize criticisms and believe they are responsible for the violence or that the abuser genuinely loves them.

Effects of Stockholm Syndrome

The effects of Stockholm syndrome can be temporary or long-lasting, depending on the person, situation, type of trauma, and duration of abuse. For example, the impacts of mistreatment may be more substantial in parental or romantic relationships (i.e., childhood sexual abuse by a caregiver or partner violence).^7,9 Unaddressed Stockholm syndrome can eventually contribute to a loss of self, PTSD symptoms, and an ongoing cycle of abuse.

Possible impacts of Stockholm syndrome include:

• Self-doubt: Stockholm syndrome can lead to self-doubt because survivors may question their worth, judgment, or ability to make decisions due to the psychological manipulation they have endured.
• Low self-esteem: A survivor may internalize the negative messages and abuse from their captor, leading to a diminished sense of self-worth.
• Conflicting thoughts about the abuse: Survivors may simultaneously feel empathy or sympathy toward their abuser while also recognizing the harm and trauma associated with the mistreatment.
• PTSD symptoms: PTSD symptoms, such as flashbacks, nightmares, and hyperarousal, can manifest in individuals due to the trauma associated with Stockholm syndrome.
• Co-occurring mood disorder: Co-occurring mood disorders, such as depression or anxiety, may develop as a result of the long-term effects of trauma, captivity, and powerlessness.
• Loss of identity: Survivors may have had to modify their personality, beliefs, or values to align with expectations or to ensure their safety and survival.
• Chronic health issues: Chronic health issues can arise from prolonged stress associated with captivity or abuse, such as headaches, digestive problems, or cardiovascular issues.
• Trust issues: Survivors may struggle to trust others, including themselves, due to the betrayal and manipulation they experienced from their abuser.
• Relationship problems: The dynamics of abusive relationships can impact future relationships, leading to difficulties in establishing healthy boundaries and patterns of communication.
• Increased risk of future abuse: Patterns of loyalty and dependency on an abuser can make survivors vulnerable to subsequent abusive relationships.
• Substance use: Substance use can be a coping mechanism for survivors of Stockholm syndrome, as they may turn to drugs or alcohol to numb emotional pain, escape memories, or cope with trauma.

Examples of Stockholm Syndrome

Many cases of Stockholm syndrome are evident throughout history. While the most common example is people who were held hostage or kept captive for long periods, other situations can lead to the development of Stockholm syndrome.

Below are examples of Stockholm syndrome:

The 1973 Bank Robbery in Stockholm, Sweden

The term Stockholm syndrome was coined in 1973 after a high-profile bank robbery resulted in Jan-Erik Olsson taking four bank employees as hostages. Olsson held the hostages in a small bank vault with him for more than five days. During this time, they bonded with Olsson because of his small acts of kindness. For example, Olsson offered a jacket to one shivering hostage and consoled another who worried about her family.

These acts earned the trust and loyalty of the hostages. All four began to think of Olsson as a good person who was genuinely concerned for them despite keeping them hostage and threatening to shoot them. When the standoff ended, the hostages tried to protect Olsson and refused to cooperate with the police.¹⁰

Patty Hearst

Another well-known example of Stockholm syndrome was Patty Hearst, a famous young woman kidnapped at age 19. In 1974, she was violently abducted from her apartment by an American terrorist cell known as the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA). The SLA held her hostage and demanded the release of two of their imprisoned members and other terms in exchange for her safe release.¹¹

Some later reports claimed she became a voluntary member of their organization, even participating in a bank robbery with them. When charged with this crime, her lawyer produced evidence that her captors had subjected her to conditions that caused her to develop Stockholm syndrome. While she did serve some prison time, she was released early and later issued a presidential pardon as more facts related to her case became public.¹¹

Allison Mack

The NXIVM sex cult scandal involved the charismatic cult leader Keith Raniere. NXIVM marketed itself as an ‘executive success program’ that could help people focus on personal and professional growth and development. One of his most famous recruits was Allison Mack, an actress best known for her role in the TV show Smallville.

Allison Mack became a high-level member of the pyramid scheme after developing an intense emotional and sexual relationship with Raniere. She recruited other female members for a secretive sect of NXIVM nicknamed DOS. Mack promoted DOS to female members of NXIVM as a women’s empowerment group, but DOS was actually a sex slave cult.¹²

The group forced DOS members to have sexual relations with Raniere and other members. Leaders also intensely monitored their daily activities, sleep, and food intake. Bribery, blackmail, isolation, and extreme deprivation were all used to indoctrinate DOS members and ensure their loyalty to Raniere, which are all conditions that can lead to Stockholm syndrome.^1,6,13

In 2021, Raniere received 120 years in prison, while Mack was to serve three years for her role in sex trafficking and fraud. Mack and other DOS members displayed symptoms of Stockholm syndrome, including intense loyalty to Raniere, whom they revered and idolized.

Even in the trial, Mack remained loyal to Raniere and did not testify against him. Her reduced sentencing was likely partially due to the recognition she had suffered from symptoms of Stockholm syndrome, as she experienced these same abusive and coercive conditions.¹¹

Abusive Relationships

Another more general example of Stockholm syndrome is relationships in which one partner batters, threatens, and physically or sexually abuses the other. In many instances, women in abusive relationships remain incredibly loyal to the perpetrators, often believing them when they profess their love or promise to change.⁴

The signs of Stockholm syndrome could include misplaced loyalty toward an abuser, excuses made for abusive actions, and self-blame. Also, many abusers intentionally isolate victims from their support systems, making them more dependent on their abuser. Doing so means they are less likely to leave.

Child Abuse

Because children are inherently vulnerable and dependent on caregivers, many try to appease their caregivers to meet their needs. The strategy is common in people who develop Stockholm syndrome, often resulting from not having other options (i.e., leaving, getting help, fighting back, etc.).^3,4

Abused children also tend to cope with the abuse by denying, minimizing, or justifying the behavior, making excuses for their caregivers while blaming themselves. This way, they can maintain hope and believe their parent will change “if” or “when” they behave better.⁴

These children frequently put the abusive adult on a pedestal, highlighting the few times when they were caring, kind, or attentive. In some cases, children may even make up or exaggerate such scenarios to convince themselves their caregivers love and care about them. They may believe the abuse is a form of affection, as seen in some cases of childhood sexual abus⁸

How Is Stockholm Syndrome Diagnosed?

Stockholm syndrome is not a recognized psychological diagnosis, meaning no standardized diagnostic criteria or medical tests exist specifically for this condition. However, mental health professionals will observe and assess the behaviors and symptoms of the individual.

These signs may include irrational positive feelings toward the abuser, difficulty bonding with friends and family, or repeated attempts to contact the captor. From there, the professional may offer a diagnosis of PTSD or a similar condition to develop an effective treatment plan.

Stockholm Syndrome Treatment

Stockholm syndrome is not a recognized psychiatric condition, meaning treatment guidelines for this disorder do not exist. However, many need counseling or psychological treatment to process conflicting thoughts and feelings related to traumatic events.⁵

Because this syndrome often results from trauma, choosing a therapist, counselor, or psychologist experienced in trauma-informed therapy is best. You can begin your search in an online therapist directory to narrow down providers based on specialization, location, insurance, and more.

Therapy options for Stockholm syndrome may include:

• Cognitive processing therapy (CPT): CPT focuses on challenging and changing negative thoughts and beliefs related to the traumatic experience, helping the survivor develop a more balanced perspective on themselves and their abuser.
• Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): EMDR is another therapeutic approach that can help survivors process and resolve traumatic memories associated with Stockholm Syndrome. This method uses bilateral stimulation through eye movements or other techniques to reduce distressing symptoms.
• Accelerated resolution therapy (ART): ART combines elements of various psychotherapy approaches, including EMDR and CBT. ART aims to rapidly process traumatic memories and promote emotional healing by utilizing a structured protocol and specific techniques.
• Prolonged exposure therapy: Prolonged exposure therapy helps individuals confront and process traumatic memories. This approach involves gradually and systematically exposing survivors to distressing situations or memories, allowing them to break free from avoidance and develop new cognitive and behavioral responses.
• Trauma-focused CBT (TF-CBT): TF-CBT focuses on helping survivors process and integrate their traumatic experiences in a safe and supportive way while also addressing any associated emotional and behavioral difficulties.