Stockholm syndrome is a term used to describe positive emotional attachments that some victims develop towards people who have abused, tortured, or taken them captive.1 Stockholm syndrome is believed to be an uncommon coping response that only develops in response to certain types of prolonged trauma where the victim’s survival depends on their ability to appease their abuser.3,4,5
What Is Stockholm Syndrome?
Not all experts agree on the definition of Stockholm syndrome, and some do not even believe it exists.5 The term isn’t an official diagnosis listed in the DSM, but instead an informal term used to describe a type of trauma bonding that can develop between a victim and perpetrator, often in hostage situations.1,6 Victims who develop Stockholm syndrome develop positive feelings towards the person abusing them or holding them hostage, and may go to great lengths to protect them.2
The term was originally used to describe an irrational bond that four hostages developed with their captor in a high profile bank robbery in Stockholm, Sweden in the 70’s. Stockholm syndrome is believed to be a rare phenomenon that occurs in only 5-8% of victims who are rescued from hostage situations.1,5,6 Interestingly, the positive feelings developed by the hostage or victim are often reciprocal, meaning they are also developed by the perpetrator.7
Causes of Stockholm Syndrome
Stockholm syndrome is not fully understood by researchers, psychologists, or law enforcement personnel, and not all agree it is a real phenomenon.5 Also, people who may be affected by it are often unwilling to comply with authorities because they don’t want to incriminate their perpetrator. This is another barrier that makes it difficult to research or understand the syndrome.1,6
Traumatic Causes of Stockholm Syndrome
Still, many experts have explored possible causes of Stockholm syndrome, including specific types of traumatic experiences, such as childhood trauma or religious trauma, and also psychological explanations as to why it occurs. The term was originally used only for victims who were kidnapped, held captive or taken hostage.
Many experts believe Stockholm syndrome can develop in response to other kinds of trauma including:5,7,8,9
- Human trafficking, sex trafficking, and prostitution
- Abusive relationships in adults (particularly women)
- Childhood trauma including physical, sexual or emotional abuse or incest
- Cults or religious, political, or terrorist extremist group membership
- Political prisoners or prisoners of war
- Slaves or individuals imprisoned, detained, or kept in isolation
- Citizens or groups of oppressive/corrupt regimes, governments, or institutions
Psychological Causes of Stockholm Syndrome
It’s believed that Stockholm syndrome is a last-resort defense mechanism used to cope with extremely stressful, dangerous, and inescapable situations.3 This defense mechanism is mainly used when someone is unable to escape the situation, rely on others for help, or fight back. Some experts believe it is an adaptive response that helps a victim maintain hope, empathy, and limit the negative psychological effects of the trauma.1,3,4
In order for a person to develop symptoms of Stockholm syndrome, most experts believe that certain circumstances must be present, including:1,2,3
- Isolation from the outside world, often for a long period of time
- Deprivation of basic needs or poor living conditions
- Complete dependence on the perpetrator for basic needs and survival
- Certain acts of kindness, affection, or ‘humanity’ towards the victim
- A dangerous, distressing or bad situation that feels inescapable
- Threats made or implied towards the victim’s life but not acted upon
- Frequent interactions or being in a shared space with the perpetrator
- The belief that appeasing their perpetrator is a way to ensure safety & cope
Signs of Stockholm Syndrome
Only a small percentage of people who experience trauma display signs of Stockholm syndrome. Stockholm syndrome is characterized by an irrational psychological bond or attachment with an abuser or captor.1,2
Law enforcement and psychological professionals who have worked with individuals suspected to have Stockholm syndrome often observe the following signs:1,2,3,9
- Humanizing and empathizing with their captor, perpetrator, or abuser
- A powerful emotional or psychological bond between a victim and their abuser
- A victim who tries to protect or defend their captor or abuser from authorities
- Denial or minimization of abuse, torture, or other maltreatment of the abuser
- Selective memory of times when their abuser was kind or affectionate to them
- A refusal to cooperate with authorities trying to intervene, help, or rescue them
- A belief in the inherent goodness or humanity of their perpetrator
- A desire to please or appease the person abusing, controlling, or mistreating them
- A belief that they can prevent abuse/maltreatment through good behavior
- Withdrawing from other captors/victims (if applicable) to avoid angering their abuser
- Adopting the goals or aligning with the values/objectives of their captor or abuser
Symptoms of Stockholm Syndrome
While Stockholm syndrome is not a diagnosable mental health condition, it is something that has been both observed and researched. Some of this research has worked to document a list of ‘symptoms’ of Stockholm syndrome. While these can vary slightly from person to person, there are some common symptoms that are observed in people who appear to suffer from Stockholm syndrome.9,10
Even though all people who display these symptoms have experienced trauma, the research indicates that the symptoms of Stockholm syndrome are different from the symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Some of the more common Stockholm syndrome symptoms that have been documented in the research include:1,2,9
- Feeling closely bonded or attached to the captor or abuser
- Regressing to a childlike state of dependence
- Selective memory of positive or kind acts of the captor or abuser
- Denial, minimization, or excuses made for abuse or maltreatment
- Feeling emotionally disconnected, numb or detached
- Dissociating from one’s body or selective amnesia of trauma/abuse
- Self-blame, guilt, or shame for the trauma or abuse
- Wanting to protect the perpetrator or abuser
- Conflicting feelings of fear and affection for the captor/abuser
- Distrust of authorities and refusal to cooperate with them
- Idealization of the perpetrator or abuser
- Delusions, or distorted thinking (cognitive distortions)
- Increased anxiety or feeling easily agitated or irritated
- Feelings of depression, hopelessness or helplessness
- Feeling estranged or detached from other people (besides the abuser)
- Loss of identity or trouble identifying feelings, wants, and needs
- Inability to make decisions or be independent
- Lowered self-esteem or loss of identity
- Defensiveness, distrust, or anger towards others attempting to help them
Effects of Stockholm Syndrome
The effects of Stockholm syndrome can be temporary or long-lasting in nature, depending on the person, the situation, and the type of trauma they experienced and how long it went on. In situations where there was a prior relationship with the abuser (i.e. abusive relationships or childhood sexual abuse by a caregiver), the effects can be more long-lasting.8,9In situations where there was not a prior relationship and the person has a stable support system, receives timely treatment, and has effective coping skills, the effects may only be temporary.
Some of the known short or long term impacts of Stockholm syndrome include:10
- Confusion, doubt and trouble thinking and making decisions
- Lowered self-esteem, self-worth, or lingering guilt and shame
- Conflicting thoughts and feelings about the trauma and the perpetrator
- PTSD symptoms including flashbacks, mood instability, and avoidance
- Alternating between distorted thinking (denial, minimization, etc) and clear thinking
- Lingering mood problems including increased depression, anxiety, or irritability
- Ongoing feelings of helplessness, hopelessness, or worthlessness
- Loss of motivation or interest in activities or relationships
- Possible increased risk for chronic health issues
- Health problems linked to poor living conditions (i.e. malnutrition, anemia, etc.)
- Trust and intimacy issues and problems developing healthy relationships
- Increased risk for becoming a victim of future abuse, assault or crime
5 Examples of Stockholm Syndrome
There are many historical examples of Stockholm syndrome, as well as anecdotal examples taken from case studies. While the most commonly used example is people who were held hostage or kept captive for long periods of time, there are other situations that may also lead to the development of Stockholm syndrome.
Below are 5 examples of Stockholm syndrome:
1. The Infamous 1973 Bank Robbery in Stockholm, Sweden
The term Stockholm syndrome was coined in 1973 after a high profile bank robbery resulted in a man taking four bank employees as hostages. The hostages were held in a small bank vault with their captor, a man by the name of Jan-Erik Olsson for more than 5 days.
During this time, they developed a bond with Olsson, who had shown them some kindness during the crisis. For example, Olsson offered a jacket to one shivering hostage and provided consolation to another who was worried about her family.
These acts earned the trust and loyalty of the hostages. All four began to think of him as a good person who was genuinely concerned for them, despite the fact he had kept them hostage and even threatened to shoot them. When the standoff ended in the police setting tear gas off in the building to arrest Olsson, the hostages all tried to protect Olsson and refused to cooperate with the police.11
2. Patty Hearst: a High-Profile Kidnapping
Another well known example of Stockholm syndrome was Patty Hearst, a famous young woman kidnapped at age 19. She was violentally kidnapped from her apartment in Berkeley, California in 1974 by an American terrorist cell known as the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA). The SLA held her hostage and demanded the release of two of their imprisoned members and other terms in exchange for her safe release.12
It was later reported that she had converted and become a voluntary member of their organization, and she even participated in a bank robbery with the group. When charged for this crime, her lawyer produced evidence that she had been brainwashed, tortured, and subjected to conditions which caused her to develop Stockholm syndrome.
For example, evidence emerged that she had been raped, threatened, and tortured by the group, who kept her isolated in a closet for long periods of time. These are typical conditions that can lead a person to develop Stockholm syndrome.1,7 She did serve some prison time, but was released early and even later issued a presidential pardon, as more facts related to her case became public.12
3. NXIVM Cult Member Allison Mack
A more recent well-publicized example of Stockholm syndrome is the NXIVM sex cult scandal involving the charismatic cult leader Keith Raniere. NXIVM marketed itself as an ‘executive success program’ that could help people focus on personal and professional growth and development. One of his most famous recruits was Allison Mack, an actress best known for her role in the TV show Smallville.
Allison Mack became a high level member in the pyramid scheme after developing an intense emotional and sexual relationship with Raniere. She was then given a special role in recruiting other female members for a secretive sect of NXIVM nicknamed DOS. Mack promoted DOS to female members of NXIVM as a special womens empowerment group, but DOS was actually sex slave cult.13
DOS members were forced to have sexual relations with Raniere and other members. They were also subjected to intense monitoring of their daily activities, sleep, and food intake. Bribery, blackmail, isolation, and extreme deprivation were all used to indoctrinate DOS members and ensure their loyalty to Raniere, which are all conditions that can lead to Stockholm syndrome.1,2,7
In 2021, Raniere was sentenced to 120 years in prison and Mack was sentenced to 3 years for her role in sex trafficking and fraud. Mack and other DOS members displayed symptoms of Stockholm syndrome including intense loyalty to Raniere, who they revered and idolized.
Even in trial, Mack remained loyal to Raniere and did not testify against him. Her reduced sentencing was likely partially due to the recognition that she had suffered from symptoms of Stockholm syndrome, as she was subjected to these same abusive and coercive conditions.13
4. A Woman In an Abusive Relationship
Another common but more general example of Stockholm syndrome is a woman who is in an abusive relationship where she is battered, threatened, and physically or sexually abused by her partner. In many instances, women in abusive relationships remain incredibly loyal to their abusers, often believing their abuser when they say they love them or make promises to change.5
The signs of Stockholm syndrome can be found in their misplaced loyalty towards their abuser, the excuses they make for their actions, and the ways they often blame themselves. Also, many women in abusive relationships are intentionally isolated from their support system, making them more dependent on their abuser.5,7,9
This works to keep them more isolated and dependent on their abusive partner, while also making it less likely they will feel able to leave. Even if they do leave the relationship, most abused women end up going back to their abuser many times before finally leaving the relationship, even when the abuse escalates.9
5. A Child Abused by a Parent or Adult Caregiver
Because children are inherently vulnerable and dependent on adult caregivers for most of their needs, they will often try to appease their caregiver in order to get their needs met. The appeasement strategy is common in people who develop Stockholm syndrome, and is often the result of not having other options (like leaving, getting help, fighting back, etc.).3,4
Abused children also tend to cope with the abuse by denying, minimizing, or justifying it, making excuses for their parent or caregiver while blaming themselves. In this way, they can maintain hope and believe that their parent will stop the abuse or meet their needs “if” or “when” they behave better.4
They also tend to put the abusive adult on a pedestal, highlighting the few times when this adult was caring, kind, or attentive. In some cases, they may even make these scenarios up or exaggerate them in order to convince themselves that they’re loved and cared for. They may even believe that the abuse is a form of love or affection, as seen in some cases of childhood sexual abuse.8
Stockholm Syndrome Treatment
Because Stockholm syndrome is not a recognized psychiatric condition, there aren’t specific treatment guidelines for this disorder. However, many people need counseling or psychological treatment in order to process through conflicting thoughts and feelings related to traumatic events.5
Because this syndrome is believed to only result from trauma, choosing a therapist who uses a trauma-informed approach is advised. It’s also a good idea to look for therapists who use proven trauma treatments like cognitive processing therapy, eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), accelerated resolution therapy, or Prolonged Exposure Therapy.13 Many people begin their search by using an online therapist directory which can help to narrow down therapists with trauma specialties or who accept certain insurances.
Final Thoughts
Stockholm syndrome is a psychological response to specific traumatic experiences where a victim develops a psychological bond or falls in love with their captor or abuser. While it isn’t officially recognized as a diagnosable condition, there are many documented examples of Stockholm syndrome in modern history.1,2
While there is still a lot more to learn about this phenomenon, most experts believe it is a defense and survival skill people use when they face inescapable bad situations.1,3,4 There are many evidence-based treatments that can help people overcome traumatic experiences. Most of the time, the recovery process begins with the help of a licensed counselor or therapist.
Stockholm Syndrome Infographics
